History of Caphiria

The history of Caphiria has been among the most influential to the modern world, from the spread of the Latin language and Romance languages as a result of the creation of the Imperial Church to its vast contributions to modern governments, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language, and society.

Caphirian history is divided into six distinct political ages, each having its sociological eras:
 * Ancient history (9th century BC - 369 BC) - covering Caphiria's earliest inhabitants and the establishment of the Latinic people.
 * The First Republic (369 BC-136 AD) - This marks the start of recorded Caphirian history, covering the end of the monarchical system and the birth of republicanism, and the foundations of empire.


 * The First Imperium (136 - 890 AD) - During this time, Caphiria experienced vigorous expansion of its territory and enjoyed regional dominance, becoming a true empire. Eventually, the empire began to crumble under its own weight and became unable to manage its vast territorial holdings, dealt with numerous internal struggles for power, and ultimately collapsed in 890.


 * The Second Imperium (900 - 1172) - Augustus Rahla attempted to restore political stability by establishing the "Second Imperium," which was supposed to be a hybrid government that pleased both the ambitious younger generation who wanted a populist government and the elder aristocracy who tried to preserve the centuries-old institutions like the Senate. This government was plagued with issues from the start and quickly reignited more conflict, which led to lots of unrest and political splintering and culminated with the Great Civil War, a brutal 45-year civil war lasting from 1127-1172 which saw the collapse of the Second Imperium.


 * The Dark Period (1172 - 1283) - Following the Great Civil War, barbarians began attacking the weakened empire; the Senate agreed to let most of its provinces become pseudo-independent states controlled by local warlords while it usurped control over Venceia and effectively reverted to being a Republican city-state. This is known as the era of the Second Republic. Eventually, Șerossaccir Odobricci, a Latino-Slavic warlord of Truřov (one of the established warlord states), began a successful military campaign of conquering his neighbors and reuniting the lost provinces of the empire. Șerossaccir would eventually march on Venceia and destroy the republic, but rather than sacking the city, he stands outside of it and accepts, under the force of arms, the title of Imperator from the Senate, who also passes a bill that makes Șerossaccir the legal heir of the last recognized Imperator, thus establishing the Third Imperium in 1283


 * The Third Imperium (1283 - 1782) - This period is marked by the state's reunification, the creation of the Constitution of Caphiria, and the establishment of dozens of Latino-Slavic dynasties and cultural/political institutions. At the same time, this period features the Great Schism of 1615, where a break of communion between what are now the Catholic Church and the Imperial Church of Caphiria occurred. The Great Schism played a significant role in the fall and decline of the Third Imperium. Throughout the mid to late-17th century, Caphiria lost the majority of its western territory. Known as the dissolution of the Western Provinces, several countries gained their independence, such as Pelaxia in 1615 and Cartadania in 1630. The Imperium also experienced an Eastern collapse, where Aciria gained independence in 1625 and Caphiria lost a 13-year war against Veltornia in the Veltorine War of Independence in 1771.


 * The Fourth Imperium (1782 - present) - After losing most of its territory and control over the continent, the Imperium went through a significant reformation period - The Senate deleted most Slavic dynasties and institutions, re-established Caphiric ruling dynasties and families, as well as forming the National Assembly and eventually creating the Corcillum. Caphiria's role in the First Great War re-asserted it as a global power and regained hegemony in Sarpedon - it re-annexed Veltorina and instituted a diplomatic system of controlling its neighbors known as Imperial Diplomacy. However, Caphiria's relationship with Levantia - specifically Urcea, became increasingly hostile and Cartadania and Pelaxia began to align themselves with Levantine interests, sparking the state-sponsored propaganda Levantine Creep.

Prehistory
The origins of Caphiria trace back to a geographic region called Latium that encompasses the southern part of Levantia and the northern part of Sarpedon. The area of Latium played a pivotal role in developing several diverse cultural groups and civilizations. The lands of Caphiria were first colonized stably during the Upper Paleolithic and the Mesolithic by people migrating out of the Latium area and across the Urlazian Sea. These settlements, usually of small dimensions, were generally built on hills and circumscribed with fortifications. The economy of these settlements was mainly based on agro-pastoral activities, metallurgy, and trades. After considerable uniformity from north to south, the colonies began to show a regionalization process.

Ancient history
The coastal city Venceia was established sometime in the 9th century BC during the golden age of Adonerum after a sizeable Latinic tribe, the Caraspi, settled in the area. When the Adonerii League collapsed towards the end of the 6th century BC, the Caraspi tribe took advantage of the power vacuum. It began quickly asserting its dominance and established the city-state of Caraspia in present-day Venceia. The Caraspi people claimed to be the direct successors of the Adonerii, as they share the same language (the Latin language evolved from Ancient Latinic), ancestry, history, and culture. As a result, Caraspia began to refer to itself (and its conquered territories) as Latinics, and thus the Latinic civilization was established.

The Latinic civilization approached colonization differently than their Adonerii predecessors; instead of relying on a network of city-states, they relied on Latinisation, acculturation, integration, and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations. Despite this Latinisation process, Caraspia preserved their ancestral traditions for more than half a millennium; They maintained the ancient denominations for their tribes, magistrates, and public bodies and remained faithful to cults taken from Adonerii. Venceia, at the heart of the growing Caraspian state, developed into an important trade center in olive oil, wine, fine pottery, and jewelry. This strengthened and spread the use of the Latin language and the Latin culture across the Sarpic continent. However, the region was plagued by constant warring factions, and this time was marked by chaos and political instability.

This regional instability was exploited by a Latinic general named Lanintius. Lanintius was born in Venceia in 527 BC during a five-year interregnum, during which he was sold several times into bondage. Throughout his childhood and adolescence, Lanintius participated in numerous conflicts for Caraspia; he was a successful military commander and built a loyal bond with the men he fought with. With the support from the army and the people of Venceia, Lanintius was in a position to vie for control over Caraspia, which worried the reigning king at the time, Juscargyrus. A jealous and paranoid ruler, Juscargyrus tried to have Lanintius assassinated multiple times but ultimately failed every time. Initially, Lanintius was unfazed by these assassination attempts and continued to defend and expand Caraspia's borders. However, in 490 BC, while Lanintius was pacifying a small rebellion, Juscargyrus ordered the kidnapping and execution of Lanintius' wife and 8-year-old son. Lanintius found out about this from an official messenger from Venceia, who is said to have traveled nonstop to where his camp was. Once the word spread throughout the camp, it eventually reached the ears of the rebels, who were reported to have dropped their arms and swore personal allegiance to Lanintius to avenge his family. People from around the Latinic region began disavowing Juscargyrus for his dishonorable actions and rallied behind Lanintius, who marched on Venceia with a furious passion.

Lanintius sacked the city in 479 BC, with Juscargyrus committing suicide by poison to avoid capture. Caraspia was now without a ruler, and the people clamored for Lanintius to pick up the mantle. He then said, "if I am to rule over you, if I am to be your king, ensure that your king contains the mantle of the people." He selected a group of elders called senex (senate), who all unanimously selected him as their ruler. To further separate himself from past rulers, Lanintius claimed that as he had killed the evil from Caraspia, he must give rise to a new spirit - he renamed the city-state into Caphiria and founded the Kingdom of Caphiria in 480 BC.

Kingdom era (480-369 BC)
Little is certain about the history of the Caphiric Kingdom, as nearly no written records from that time survive. The histories about it that were written during the Republic and Empire are largely based on legends. Accordingly, Lanintius ruled as King of Caphiria for 47 years. Under his rule, the kingdom largely flourished and expanded. A series of fortifications were built around Venceia, ensuring its security and prosperity. The first Walls of the Artineo were constructed around this time, built around the entrance to Artineo Bay which flows and melts into the much larger Ecinis Sea. Trade routes expanded exponentially under Lanintius, with Caphirian merchants becoming a common sight from the northern coasts of Levantia to the bustling markets of southern Sarpedon. Caphirian gold and silver coins, impressed with the face of Lanintius on one side and symbols of Caphirian power on the other, became highly valued.

After Lanintius’s death in c. 433 BC, his eldest son, Daniandus, ascended the throne. While not as celebrated a conqueror as his father, Drusianus is remembered for his wisdom and understanding of governance. He established the first codified set of laws known as the Danian Codes, which laid the foundation for future Caphirian legal systems. The reigns of subsequent kings were marked by varying degrees of success. Some, like Bryenumus, expanded the territories further, while others focused on internal development. The power of the Senate grew, often acting as a counterbalance to the monarchy. Conflicts between the Senate and the monarchy marked the later part of the Kingdom era. The increasing power of the Senate and the demand for a more participative form of governance led to widespread discontent against monarchical rule.

Sathrindus was the fourth king and he ascended the throne at a young age following the sudden death of his predecessor, Thalondrus. The circumstances of Thalondrus's death remain a point of speculation, further shrouded by the scant records from the period. Rumors spread that Sathrindus had been involved in a plot to ensure his ascension, though no concrete evidence was ever presented. The reign of Sathrindus was short - at just seven years, although it is one of the most interesting as there are several surviving stories from his reign. Two years into his reign, the Senate convened for its annual session but did not emerge for three days. When the doors were finally opened, senators were found in a trance-like state, unable to speak of what had transpired. They remained this way for weeks. Many saw this as a direct manipulation by Sathrindus to suppress the growing power of the Senate, but again, concrete evidence was elusive. After several months, the Senate seemed to have fully recovered. A year later, Sathrindus dispatched an entire legion to survey the southern frontier, deep into the Intaris Mountains. However, the legion never returned and despite numerous search missions, no sign of the legion or its equipment was ever found. The disappearance of the legion added to the growing unrest and rumors about Sathrindus's competency, which culminated with the assassination of Aus. Aus was respected prophetess who lived on the isolated island of Estro. Sathrindus became enamored with her, constructing a massive temple in Venceia in her honor. To mark the occasion, he invited the prophetess to Venceia, and to give a public talk. She agreed. However, Aus prophesied the fall of Sathrindus in her temple. She spoke of "a king who is not a king" and "a throne built on shadows." Within days, she was found dead, her temple desecrated. Though Sathrindus publicly mourned her death, whispers of his involvement were rampant.

Towards the end of his reign, in a bid to win over public sentiment, Sathrindus announced his participation in a high-profile chariot race in Venceia. His younger brother, Admoneptis, a celebrated athlete, yielded his spot in the race to Sathrindus after being forced to publicly declare his faith in his King. Tragically, during the race, the chariot malfunctioned and resulted in the death of Sathrindus. Admoneptis rushed to the scene, his face a mask of grief and shock. Rumors began to swirl. Some said the chariot had been tampered with, pointing fingers at Admoneptis due to his initial hesitation to publicly offer his chariot. Others speculated that the other charioteers, not wanting a king to win, had intentionally caused the crash. And still, others saw it as divine intervention, a direct result of Aus's prophecy.

The immediate aftermath was chaotic. With no king and a potential power vacuum, the nobles and senators were in an uproar. The Senate convened an emergency session, and Admoneptis, though devastated by the loss of his brother, was placed under house arrest pending an investigation. However, the investigation was inconclusive. Some believed it to be a tragic accident, while others saw it as a culmination of Sathrindus's tumultuous reign. The Senate, wary of another unpredictable king, decided to place the kingdom under the stewardship of a council until a rightful heir could be found. However, Admoneptis's popularity led to public demand for his coronation. After months of deliberation, Admoneptis was crowned King. His first act as king was to build a grand mausoleum in honor of his brother, King Sathrindus.

Overthrow of Admoneptis
Following the controversial death of Sathrindus, Admoneptis ascended to the throne, becoming the fifth and last legendary king of Caphiria. His reign was a sharp departure from previous monarchs, characterized by a decline in royal authority. Powerful officials, who once worked under the umbrella of the monarchy, started gaining prominence and acted as independent entities, undermining the monarch's power. This period marked the beginning of a noticeable shift in political dynamics, which would eventually set the stage for the fall of the Caphiric Kingdom. In particular, the power of the king himself was being threatened due to the emergence of extraordinarily powerful officials, who, while they accepted the authority of the monarch, in practice acted with supreme power and began to execute their political activities similar to those of the kings.

Admoneptis' reign was lackluster from a military perspective. The king is recorded to have stayed "in the land" (i.e., not campaigned) for almost every year of his reign, save for only three years. In 393 BC, the year of his accession, he campaigned against the Kavarnitsans, and in 374–375 BC, he campaigned against the city of Ispoli in Sokasti. It is probably from the conclusion of the 393 BC campaign that the Kavarnitsan treaty comes from. Almost all of the surviving portions of this treaty are made up of curses against the Kavarnitsans. It was customary for a Caphirian king to campaign every year, which means that Admoneptis staying in Caphiria could be a sign of domestic instability. The stagnation under Admoneptis wasn’t limited to military endeavors. Historically, Caphirian kings championed infrastructure and building projects, but under Admoneptis, there was a conspicuous absence of such initiatives, further underlining the growing domestic turmoil.

After his wife Demina died in childbirth, Admoneptis' mental health declined, and he gained the reputation of being an obese glutton, using emetics to be able to indulge in banquets four times a day and often having himself invited over to a different noble's house for each one. As Admoneptis's governance deteriorated, the realm faced multiple uprisings. Initial protests were contained and relatively non-violent, but the king’s severe response – mass public executions of dissidents – only stoked the flames of rebellion.

In 369 BC, the civil unrest reached its climax. Martyrius and Darius Lux, two brothers with significant influence and public support, masterminded a coup in Venceia, effectively ending the Caphiric Kingdom. The final days of Admoneptis are shrouded in tragedy; he reportedly took his own life as the revolutionaries closed in on his palace.

While Admoneptis's reign is remembered for its decline, it inadvertently paved the way for the Caphirian Republic. Martyrius and Darius Lux, now celebrated as the "Architects of the Republic," utilized the power vacuum left behind to establish a new form of governance, fostering a republic that would last for centuries. Their reforms and political acumen would set the foundation for a system that sought to prevent the concentration of power in one individual, ensuring that the mistakes of the past would not be easily repeated.

First Republic (369 BC-109 AD)
The First Republic of Caphiria was established by the brothers Martyrius and Darius Lux in 369 BC, after their successful coup d'etat. They became known as the fratres lucis, or brothers of light.

In the immediate aftermath of the coup, Martyrius and Darius Lux assumed control of the government and began the process of establishing the new Republic. They first abolished the monarchy and declared that all citizens were equal under the law. They also established a new system of governance, in which power was divided among several branches: the Senate, which was made up of elected officials and acted as the legislative branch; the Assemblies, which were made up of citizens and acted as the judicial branch; and the office of the Consul, which was held by two elected officials who acted as the executive branch.

Martyrius also introduced a number of social and political reforms, including the establishment of a legal system and the introduction of a new constitution. These reforms were intended to create a more just and equitable society, and they were met with widespread support from the people of Caphiria. One of the most important reforms were the First Land Reforms, known as the terra alteratio. These reforms were significant and far-reaching, including the redistribution of land, the implementation of new farming techniques, new crops such as peas and beans, and the creation of land banks (terracreditor) which provided loans to farmers and other land seekers, allowing them to purchase land.

As the Republic took shape, Darius focused on the military and worked to secure the Republic's borders and defend it against potential threats. Darius effectively rebuilt the Caphirian military from scratch, introducing a wide array of reforms such as the establishment of a professional standing army, the introduction of military conscription, the adoption of new military tactics and technologies, and establishing a navy. Prior to the formation of the Republic, Caphiria relied on a militia-based system, with citizens taking up arms to defend their country when needed. Under Darius' reforms, however, the government maintained a permanent military force. In order to maintain a large and effective military force, the Republic implemented a system of military conscription which required all able-bodied male citizens to serve in the military for three lustra (15 total years). Darius made a concerted effort to stay at the forefront of military technology and tactics. This included the adoption of new weapons such as the gladius sword and the pilum spear, as well as the use of disciplined formations and strategic planning.

In terms of foreign policy, the Republic was primarily focused on expanding its territory and increasing its influence. This often involved military campaigns to conquer neighboring lands and incorporate them into the Republic. However, the Republic also engaged in diplomatic efforts, entering into treaties and alliances with other states in order to further its interests Darius formed alliances with other city-states and engaged in diplomatic negotiations with foreign powers.

A significant military victory for the Republic was the conquest of the city-state of Tezia in Viacovo in 343 BC. This was a major victory for the Republic, as it allowed them to expand their territory and gain control over important trade routes. The conquest of Tezia was also significant because it marked the first time that the Republic had successfully defeated a major enemy in a prolonged military campaign. This helped to establish the Republic as a major military power and gave them a reputation for military prowess.

Another major foreign policy success of the Republic during this time was the Mastadian treaty of 325 BC. This treaty was signed between the Republic and the Mastadians - a Sarpic kingdom near the eastern border, and it was designed to establish a peace agreement between the two sides. The exact details of how the treaty came to be are not well-known, as there are no surviving records or accounts from the time. However, it is likely that the treaty was the result of negotiations between the Republic and the Mastadians after the conquest of Tezia several decades earlier. The terms of the treaty were that the Mastadians would become vassals of the Republic, pledging their loyalty to the Republic and its Consuls in exchange for protection and support. In return, the Republic agreed to recognize the Mastadians as a sovereign people, with their own laws, customs, and traditions. The Mastadians also agreed to provide troops to the Republic's army, to fight alongside the Caphirian soldiers in future campaigns. The signing of the Mastadian treaty was a major diplomatic victory for the Republic, as it helped to secure peace in the region and allowed the Republic to focus on other areas of expansion. The Mastadians proved to be valuable allies, and their troops were instrumental in several of the Republic's military campaigns in the following years.

Conquest of Tezia
The conquest of Tezia in 343 BC was a major military victory for the early Republic and a significant turning point in its history. The city-state of Tezia, located in the region of Viacovo, was home to a powerful Sarpic tribe known as the Tezianians. For many years, the Tezianians had been a thorn in the side of the Republic, engaging in frequent raids and skirmishes along the border. The Tezianians were a proud and warlike people, with a strong warrior culture. They were skilled horsemen and excelled at archery, and they were known for their fierce loyalty to their chieftains and their willingness to fight to the death in battle. The city of Tezia itself was a fortified stronghold, surrounded by high walls and protected by a powerful garrison of soldiers. In 344 BC, the Consuls of the Republic, Caelus Peltrasius and Quintis Helvius Taenaris, decided to launch a full-scale military campaign against Tezia. The Republic's army, which had been rebuilt by Darius Lux, was a formidable force, consisting of well-trained and disciplined soldiers equipped with the latest weapons and tactics.The campaign began with a series of lightning-fast raids on Viacovoi villages and outposts, which caught the Tezianians off-guard and allowed the Republic's army to gain a foothold in the region. The Tezianians, led by their chieftain Barnabás, quickly mobilized their forces and launched a counterattack, but they were no match for the well-trained and experienced soldiers of the Republic. The fighting was intense and brutal, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. Despite their best efforts, the Tezianians ultimately proved unable to match the might of the Republic's army. After several months of hard-fought battles, the Republic's forces finally breached the city of Tezia, capturing it in a daring siege.

The fall of Tezia was a major victory for the Republic, as it allowed them to expand their territory and secure their borders. The Tezianians were forced to surrender and accept the rule of the Republic, and they were incorporated into the Republic as a new province.

The Consuls Peltrasius and Taenaris were hailed as heroes for their successful conquest of Tezia, and they were awarded triumphs by the Senate in recognition of their victory. The conquest of Tezia also marked the beginning of the Republic's expansion into the Sarpic region, as it allowed the Republic to build a strong foothold in the area and lay the foundation for future conquests.

By capturing Tezia, the Republic gained control of important trade routes and access to valuable resources such as crops and minerals. This would have likely boosted the Republic's economy, as it would have allowed them to trade with other city-states and regions more easily. Additionally, the incorporation of the Tezianian people into the Republic would have increased the Republic's population and tax base, providing more revenue for the government. The conquest of Tezia also led to the establishment of new colonies and settlements in the region, further expanding the Republic's economy and influence in Sarpedon.

Cult of Thysdreus
After the conquest of Tezia, the Republic continued to expand its territory and influence. One of the notable historical events that occurred during this time was the rise of the cult of Thysdreus. Thysdreus was the pagan god of war and victory, worshipped by the ancient Caphirians. He was considered the patron god of soldiers and was revered for his strength, bravery, and cunning in battle. Thysdreus was often depicted as a muscular, fearsome warrior with a blood-stained sword in his hand. He was known for his unyielding determination and his willingness to sacrifice anything for victory. The cult of Thysdreus was widespread throughout Caphiria, and he was revered by soldiers and civilians alike. Many Caphirians believed that Thysdreus would watch over them in battle and grant them victory if they proved themselves worthy. As a result, soldiers would often offer prayers and sacrifices to Thysdreus before going into battle, hoping to win his favor and receive his blessings. The cult of Thysdreus began to grow in popularity, and many people began to venerate him as the protector of the Republic.

The rise of the cult of Thysdreus had significant social, political, and religious implications for the Republic. On the political side, the popularity of the cult among the soldiers gave the Consuls, who were the leaders of the Republic's armies, a great deal of influence and power. Many of the Consuls, who were elected for five-year terms, began to use their military power and popularity to gain more influence and control over the government. This would lead to a period of political instability and conflict, as rival factions within the Republic struggled for power and control.

On the religious side, the rise of the cult of Thysdreus sparked a debate over the role of religion in the Republic. Some people argued that the worship of Thysdreus and other gods was an important part of Caphirian culture and should be protected and promoted by the state. Others argued that the worship of gods was a private matter and that the state should not be involved in religious affairs. This debate continued for many years, and it played a significant role in shaping the religious and political landscape of Caphiria.

Caphirian society underwent several significant cultural changes as a result of their newfound worship of Thysdreus, which emphasized the importance of martial prowess and military victory. One of the most notable cultural changes was the increased emphasis on military training and discipline. The worship of Thysdreus placed a high value on martial skills and the ability to fight effectively in battle, and as a result, military training became an important part of Caphirian education. Boys were taught the art of war from an early age, and military drills and exercises were a regular part of daily life. This focus on military training helped to create a strong and disciplined fighting force, which was instrumental in the Republic's continued expansion and conquest of new territories.

The worship of Thysdreus also had a profound impact on Caphirian art and architecture. Temples and shrines dedicated to the god were built in many cities, and these were often adorned with intricate sculptures and carvings depicting scenes of battle and victory. The god's image also appeared on many public buildings and statues, and his likeness was often depicted on coins and other forms of currency. This widespread representation of Thysdreus in art and architecture served to reinforce the importance of military might and victory in Caphirian society.

In paintings and sculptures, he was often shown wielding a sword and shield, with his long hair and beard flowing behind him as he charged into battle. In many depictions, Thysdreus was shown standing victorious on a battlefield, surrounded by the corpses of his enemies and the spoils of war. Thysdreus was shown with the attributes of other war gods, such as the Greek Ares or the Norse Odin. He was also sometimes depicted with animals associated with war and violence, such as wolves and horses. In some cases, Thysdreus was shown with multiple heads or limbs, emphasizing his power and strength. In architecture, he would have been depicted on relief sculptures or friezes, often surrounded by symbols of war and victory such as shields, swords, and eagles. In temples and other places of worship, Thysdreus would have been depicted in larger-than-life statues, often standing tall and proud with his sword held aloft. Additionally, his pet eagle, with its ruby eye, would likely be a recurring motif in art and architecture dedicated to Thysdreus.

However, the worship of Thysdreus was not without its negatives. As the god of war, Thysdreus encouraged violence and aggression, which led to frequent wars and conflicts within the Republic. This constant state of warfare had a negative impact on the economy, as resources were diverted away from production and trade in order to fund the military. In addition, the worship of Thysdreus also perpetuated a culture of aggression and militarism, which made it difficult for the Republic to negotiate peaceful settlements with other states.

Decline and instability
One of the challenges that the late-era Republic faced during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC was internal strife. As the Republic grew in size and power, it became increasingly difficult to maintain unity and consensus among the various factions within the state. This was especially true in the political arena, where rival factions jostled for power and influence.

One of the main sources of political conflict during this time was the growing influence of the Consuls. Many of the Consuls began to use their military power and popularity to gain more influence and control over the government. This led to a situation where the Consuls were often at odds with the Senate. The conflict between the Consuls and the Senate was further exacerbated by the fact that the Consuls often had their own political agendas and were more interested in advancing their own interests than those of the Republic as a whole.

Another factor contributing to political instability was the rise of populist factions within the Republic. These factions, which were often made up of poorer citizens who felt marginalized and disenfranchised, were critical of the ruling elites and called for more radical political reforms. These factions often engaged in protests and demonstrations, and they were sometimes supported by the Consuls, who saw them as a way to gain more power and influence.

The internal strife within the Republic was further exacerbated by external factors. One of the main external threats that the Republic faced during this time was the aggressive expansionist policies of the neighboring state of Sarnia. Sarnia, which was located to the west of Caphiria, was a powerful and ambitious state that was eager to expand its territory and influence.

Sarnia was a theocratic state: they were devout followers of an monotheistic cult known as Sarnianism, which shaped every aspect of their society. Sarnianism would later form the basis for the early Christian movement known as Sarnian Christianity. The clergy, called the "Paterae," or "fathers," were responsible for leading the religious practices of the Sarnian people. They are also influential figures in the political and social life of the state, as they held a great deal of authority and respect within the community. However, the highest authority in matters of state was the council of bishops, who are the leaders of the Sarnian church. The council consisted of the bishops of the major Sarnian cities, who were elected by the Paterae. The council itself was headed by the Archbishop of Sarnia, who was the highest authority in the church and the state. The archbishop was elected by the council of bishops and served for life. One of the unique aspects of Sarnianism is its focus on the idea of the "martyr soldier." This concept holds that the greatest honor a person can achieve is to die in battle while defending their faith and their people. The Sarnians believe that those who die in this way are guaranteed a place in paradise and will be rewarded for their bravery and devotion. This belief was reinforced by the Paterae, who were expected to be strong and virtuous, and were often chosen for their physical strength and martial prowess as much as for their spiritual leadership. Despite their fierce reputation, the Sarnians were deeply religious and deeply devoted to their faith, and were known for their charitable works and their generosity to the poor and the needy. As a hyper-religious state, Sarnia believed it had a divine mandate to spread their religion to the rest of the world. With its large and well-trained army, Sarnia employed an aggressive missionary-like foreign policy, sending warrior-missionaries and evangelists to other countries in an effort to convert them to Sarnianism.

In an effort to counter the threat from Sarnia, the Republic's Consuls often engaged in military campaigns and entered into alliances with other states that were hostile to Sarnia. However, these efforts often had the unintended consequence of further destabilizing the Republic, as they often led to more conflict and strife within the state.

The Sarnian Problem
As tensions between Caphiria and Sarnia continued to rise, the issue of the divine mandate became more and more contentious. In the early 2nd century BC, the Sarnian clergy declared that God had ordained them to conquer and convert the heathen "east". This was seen as a direct challenge to Caphiria's sovereignty and sparked outrage among the aristocracy. Over several decades, Caphiria dealt with its "Sarnian problem" which consisted of dozens of minor skirmishes and three major conflicts with Sarnia.

The first major conflict between Caphiria and Sarnia occurred in 192 BC, when Sarnia launched a surprise attack on a Caphirian border fortress in the west. The attack, known as the Caratina conflict, was led by the Sarnian general, Török, who was a devout follower of Sarnianism and believed that he had been divinely ordained to conquer Caphiria and bring the people to the true faith. Török was a skilled and ambitious leader, claiming he was simply fulfilling their divine mandate to rule and conquer. The attack on the border fortress caught the Caphirians off-guard, and the fortress fell quickly to the Sarnians. This was a major blow to the Republic, as the fortress was a key strategic position that protected the border from barbarian raids. The loss of the fortress also had a psychological impact on the Caphirians, as it was seen as a sign of Sarnian superiority and the Republic's inability to defend itself.

The Caphirians were quick to respond to the attack, and they mobilized their own armies to confront the Sarnians. The two sides met in a series of brutal and bloody battles, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. Despite their best efforts, the Caphirians were unable to match the ferocity and discipline of the Sarnian army. Török was a skilled and ruthless commander, and he was able to outmaneuver and defeat the Caphirians in battle after battle. The conflict between Sarnia and Caphiria dragged on for several years, with no clear winner in sight. Both sides suffered heavy losses, and the conflict took a toll on the economies and societies of both states. The people of Caphiria began to lose faith in their government and military, and there was widespread disillusionment and unrest. The Consuls of the Republic, who had failed to prevent the attack or protect the border, came under criticism and pressure from the Senate and the people. The situation was made even more complex by the fact that there were factions within the Republic that were opposed to the war and called for a negotiated settlement with Sarnia. As the Caratina conflict dragged on, the Sarnians began to feel the strain of the war as well. Despite their initial victories, the Sarnians were unable to fully conquer the Caratina region, and they were unable to impose their religion on the Caphirians. Many of the Sarnian soldiers began to question the wisdom of the war and the divine mandate that Török had claimed. Some began to wonder if they had been misled or if they were fighting a futile war. The Caratina conflict finally came to an end in 183 BC, when the two sides signed a peace treaty. The treaty was brokered by a group of Sarnian and Caphirian diplomats and theologians who had been working behind the scenes to find a way to end the conflict. The terms of the treaty were relatively simple: Sarnia recognized the sovereignty of Caphiria and agreed to withdraw its troops from Caphirian territory. In return, Caphiria agreed to pay a large indemnity to Sarnia and to allow Sarnian missionaries to proselytize within its borders. The treaty was seen as a victory for Sarnia, as it had managed to extract concessions from Caphiria without fully conquering the state, allowing them to secure a favorable border with Caphiria and gain access to valuable resources such as timber and minerals. The treaty was also seen as a victory for the Caphirians, as it had allowed them to avoid total defeat and preserve their independence. Some people in Sarnia opposed the treaty, arguing that it was too lenient and that Sarnia had given up too much in the negotiations. They believed that Sarnia should have pushed for more concessions from Caphiria, or even continued fighting until they had completely defeated their enemies. Despite these objections, the treaty was ratified by the Sarnian council of bishops and went into effect.

Tensions between the two states continued to escalate despite the treaty and Caphiria and Sarnia found themselves locked in another major conflict. Both sides had long coveted the rich mineral deposits and fertile soil of the Sarpic mountains, which formed a natural border between the two states. The second major conflict between Caphiria and Sarnia began in 176 BC, when the Sarnians, who had a longstanding claim to the mountains and their resources, saw the Caphirians as encroaching on their territory and sent a large army to drive them out. The Caphirians, under the leadership of general Agorastocles Valerius, were determined to hold onto the mountains and their valuable resources, and they mobilized a large force to meet the Sarnian challenge. The two armies clashed in the rugged terrain of the Sarpic Mountains, with the Caphirians led by Valerius and the Sarnians by their formidable general Kovács. The fighting was fierce and brutal, with both sides suffering heavy casualties as they struggled for control of the mountains. The Caphirians were aided by several mountain clans who had allied themselves with the Republic and provided valuable intelligence and support. The most notable of these clans were the Zurashi, Aratoşani, and Bragacaveli. The Caphirians and Sarnians continued to clash in the Sarpic mountains for many years, with both sides suffering heavy losses. Despite their best efforts, the Caphirians were unable to break the Sarnian defense and gain a foothold in the mountains.

In 171 BC, the conflict reached its climax when Valerius faced off against Kovács in the Battle at Petrocaia. Despite Caphiria's army of 40,000 vastly outnumbering Sarnia's 25,000, it was Sarnia who had the advantage in the mountains. The battle began with a skirmish between the two armies as they advanced towards each other across a wide valley. The Caphirians, with their superior numbers, initially had the upper hand, pushing the Sarnians back with a series of charges. However, the Sarnians fought fiercely, using their knowledge of the terrain to their advantage and launching surprise attacks on the Caphirian flanks. The two armies clashed again on a narrow mountain pass, with the Caphirians fighting to break through the Sarnian defenses and the Sarnians determined to hold their ground. As the Caphirian army advanced deeper into the Sarpic mountains, they found themselves faced with increasingly difficult terrain and a determined enemy. As the battle raged on, the Sarnians gradually gained the upper hand, thanks in part to the skill of Kovács. Kovács was a seasoned warrior and a brilliant strategist, and he was able to outmaneuver the Caphirians at every turn. He used his knowledge of the mountains to lead his troops through hidden passes and over treacherous cliffs, allowing them to get behind the Caphirian lines and attack from the rear. Kovács had fortified key positions along the mountain passes, and he had set up ambushes and traps to catch the Caphirians off guard. The Caphirians were forced to fight a series of brutal, close-quarters battles as they tried to push through the mountains. Despite their best efforts, the Caphirians were unable to break through the Sarnian defenses. Kovács was a skilled commander, and he used the rugged terrain of the mountains to his advantage. He would send his soldiers down from their high perches to attack the Caphirians at unexpected times and places, using their superior knowledge of the mountains to their advantage. The Caphirians were also hampered by their heavy armor and weapons, which made them slow and cumbersome in the mountains. As the conflict dragged on, the Caphirians began to lose ground. They were running low on supplies, and many of their soldiers were suffering from fatigue and injuries. In contrast, the Sarnians were used to the harsh conditions of the mountains, and they were able to fight with greater endurance and resilience. In the end, it was this superior resilience that proved to be the decisive factor in the conflict. Despite the valiant efforts of Valerius and his soldiers, the Caphirians were unable to overcome the Sarnians. In the final battle, which took place on a rocky plateau high in the mountains, the Sarnians ambushed the Caphirians and dealt them a crushing defeat. Valerius and his remaining soldiers were forced to retreat out of the mountains. Unsatisfied with the enemy retreating, Kovács pursued Valerius down the mountainside, and the Sarnians, sensing victory, launched a final, all-out assault, and the remaining Caphirian army were forced to retreat in disarray. Despite their best efforts, the Caphirians were unable to stop the Sarnians, and Valerius was killed in the fighting.

In the end, the Sarnians emerged victorious, with an estimated 7,000 Caphirian casualties and 2,500 Sarnian casualties. The defeat was a major blow to the Caphirians, who had to accept a treaty imposing heavy penalties and reparations on them. The treaty also recognized the independence of the mountain clans, who had joined forces with the Sarnians during the conflict. Despite the defeat, the Caphirians remained a formidable power, and they continued to expand their territory and influence. However, the memory of the Sarpic mountain conflict would haunt them for years to come, serving as a warning of the dangers of underestimating their Sarnian rivals.

The third major conflict between Caphiria and Sarnia occurred in 159 BC, when the Sarnians again invaded Caphirian territory, this time with the explicit goal of converting the heathen Caphirians to their religion. The Caphirians fought back with all their might, but they were no match for the fanatical Sarnians. The conflict ended with a peace treaty that recognized Sarnian control over a large portion of Caphirian territory and imposed harsh religious restrictions on the Caphirians who lived there. The treaty sparked widespread outrage among the Caphirians, who saw it as a betrayal of their sovereignty and a threat to their way of life.

Piracy in the Duranis
During the 9th century, large tribes of Sarpic descent began migrating and living near the lake Duranis, located on Caphiria's southern border and neighboring present-day Volonia. These tribes were collectively referred to as the păgâni de la vora sud, or pagans from the southern edge, as they were for long pagan when neighboring tribes were Christianized. The Imperium's military strength was primarily land-based, which meant it had a reduced navy at that time and relied on hiring ships as needed. As a result, the Sarpic tribes turned to raid and piracy and quickly became consolidated and organized without fear of significant retaliation. Coastal communities unable to fend off the pirate incursions were forced to come to an understanding with the pirates and thus became havens. One of the most prominent tribes was the Društvar, who was known for the creation of the "Društvari Code," a set of rules that governed their behavior and laid a loose groundwork for an honor system.

As a group whose central reason for being brought together was Christianity, the Društvar's explanation for piracy and warfare rested in their religion. These people felt they were fighting a holy war against the Christian enemy in defense of the boundaries of their native pagan religion. As a result, they established the Društvari Code to preserve their traditions and values. Honor is what they believed to be the essential quality a hero could have, which all Društvari strived to be. Other crucial aspects of the Društvari heroic honor were loyalty to their village, army, and band; proper attention to every knight and obligation; readiness to lay down their lives or spill their blood in time of war; experience in warfare; ability to benefit their village; success and glory in duels with the Latins and other enemies of the Christian faith; and severity in punishing those who were disobedient or rebellious. It was also made known the Društvari qualities that would cancel out one's honor: reluctance to shed one's blood; failure to engage the enemy in battle; groundless boasting; avoidance of risks on the frontier; inability to take prisoners, trophies, or booty; meanness in rewards to comrades or spies; the absence of any general recognition of one's manliness; and the lack of battle scars or wounds. From these principles, it is clear that the Društvari admired the strength and arrogance of a hero and despised the weakness displayed by a coward. The importance of these principles was instilled in boys at a young age; taught to take part in competitions, they would test their strength and agility through racing, fighting, and throwing stones at one another until blood ran. This gave the Društvari a reputation as fearsome warriors who enjoyed war for the sake of war, something that terrified the aristocracy of the Imperium, who was growing more concerned that they would not be satisfied with raiding along the Duranis for long.

In 810, it was reported that the number of păgâni de la vora sud was 6,500. By 875, the number had increased to 25,000. They had become fierce enemies of the Imperium, having attacked Latin merchants and clergy passing on the Duranis and even raided close to the mainland. By this time, the păgâni de la vora sud had become interested in expanding, attempting to control the Duranis and all of its trade. The Imperium would not let this stand, so fights for the possession of the Duranis began for a decade. To prevent people from harboring a pirate, it was made known that those who did harbor a pirate or any stolen good would be treated the same as the pirates. However, this led to massive exploitation as it became a frequent way for political (and personal) rivals to accuse their foes of protecting or enabling the pirates. This llistat de noms (listing of names) of supposed pirate chiefs included Latin nobles, wealthy merchants, senior members of the clergy, and even an Imperator's concubine.

By 882, the păgâni de la vora sud - led by the Društvar raiders, had complete control of the Duranis. The head of Caphiria's southern legions, Dragapito, demanded that the lake be transferred to his control, or he would bring the full force of the Imperial Legion on them. The leader of the Društvari, a fierce but intelligent warrior, named Daro Nokto understood this was simply a vague threat as it would be ludicrous to do that, as well as knowing that the Imperium was not as politically stable as it once was. Daro Nokto wrote a list of demands in return for the Duranis, asking compensation for their great suffering at the hands of the "keresztégők," or cross-burners. He demanded 2,500,000 tremis (silver coins), but Dragapito made no commitments to these demands. While the Imperium had the funds to pay the ransom, not a single senator voted to support it, and they passed a separate bill to authorize a third of the legion to mobilize to the Duranis.

Dragapito sent word to meet Daro Nokto in person to negotiate the terms of the ransom further, and a meeting was arranged for the first day of summer, June 21. The meeting was an ambush, however, and Dragapito and his men were slaughtered soon after they arrived at the port town of Töröm.

The Great Civil War (1127-1172)
This period, from 1127 to 1172, is known as the Civil War Era due to the dozen civil wars over four decades as contention for leadership and political groups vied for control over the massive and wealthy state. The most famous of these was between Marius Oratonius and Quinus Sator Alercius and the subsequent war between their successors and die-hard loyalists. The Civil War Era began as a series of political and military confrontations between Marius Oratonius and Quinus Sator Alercius, who were looking to shift Caphiria in opposite directions. Oratonius wanted to continue to become an empire and spread Latin culture to the known world, whereas Alercius wanted to bring back the politically conservative and socially traditionalist Republic. This led to the state splitting into two: a monarchy in the north and a republic in the south. To complicate things further, the spread and dominance of Christianity could no longer be shunned; until this time, the official policy towards Christianity was hostile, and at some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Oratonius used this to his advantage, officially converting to Christianity in 1079. While he isn't recognized as the first Imperator to convert to Christianity due to the circumstances, he is recognized as the first person to give it legitimacy within the Imperium. Oratonius was then seen as a man of God, a man on the right side of the war. This helped him win the minds of many who did not initially support him and ultimately gave him an edge that the elder Alercius did not have on his side, the side of the old guard.

The Great Civil War was a fifteen-year-long politico-military struggle fought over most of Caphiria, Cartadania, Pelaxia, Talionia, and even Audonia. The culmination of the Great Civil War was the Battle of Silanus, where Oratonius' army defeated Alercius'. Oratonius sustained severe injuries in the battle and died shortly before the victory. He told his general Lucius Legarus Pius to spare Alercius if they were to capture him since he had deserted from battle after surveying the landscape and figuring he would lose. Pius assumed command and took over the army, and wasted little time in searching for Alercius. After several months of searching, they found him hiding in the Cimisi-Extressio region of Abderia, a city-state bordering the Lacio mountains. Abderia wanted no part in the war, quickly giving Alercius to Pius and, true to his word, after bringing him back to Venceia, spared Alercius' life. He did, however, strip him of his power, status, and class, effective neutering if there ever was one. Pius then exiled Alercius in 1110 and spent the next five years putting Caphiria back together after the last several decades of disarray and borderline anarchy. Pius was as intelligent in politics as he was on the battlefield and knew that the only way to solve the issues once and for all was a compromise. The stresses and strains of those years (chronic usurpations, military insurrections, simultaneous military conflicts across multiple frontiers) exposed the weaknesses in the Caphirian Republic and the Principate, forcing a radically different approach to governance.

Great Schism of 1615
The culmination of theological and political differences between the Christian north and south was the Great Schism of 1615, where a break of communion between what is now the Catholic Church and the Imperial Church of Caphiria occurred. Over the previous centuries, during the Dominate era, the role of religion was under heavy scrutiny and skepticism. Ecclesiastical papers began being published condemning the Catholic Church over several issues in the late 16th century, with the Catholic Church producing propaganda blaming Caphiria's rise of imperialism and wicked ways. The Latin Christian community was being split along doctrinal, theological, linguistic, political, and geographical lines, with each side sometimes accusing the other of having fallen into heresy and of having initiated the division. In 1615, the formal break occurred when Imperator Pius XII formally announced that the Basilicæ Magni, the cathedral and home of the Caphirian Church, would be breaking communion to form the Caphiric Catholic Church. This led to combining the secular and religious authorities and a new form of government, the caesaropapacy. The caesaropapacy meant emperors were regarded as more excellent than other mortals, though not quite as deities in their own right, further playing into the concept of princeps. For many years, pro-Catholic factions continued to challenge the leadership of the new Caphiric Church. These factions, and the people that supported the Catholic Church still, were known as Traditionalists and were heavily persecuted and executed under heresy laws. This period is known as the Months of Bloody Sundays as it was common practice for the Imperator to simply execute any people who were not coming to church in protest. Traditionalists were executed under legislation that punished anyone judged guilty of heresy against the Caphiric Church. Ultimately, the Caphiric Church went through a series of reformations (The Reformations of 1627), and the church was renamed the Caphiric Catholic Church. There were only a handful of modifications, namely that the Imperator of Caphiria was given many ecclesiastical titles: Episcopus Caphiria ("Bishop of Caphiria"), Pius Felix ("Pious and Blessed"), Santissimus Pater ("Most Holy Father"), Vicarius Christi ("Vicar of God") and was named Pontifex Maximus, giving him the ultimate authority of presiding over the Imperial Church. This was codified in the Constitution of Caphiria and constitutionally established the Imperial Church by the state with the Head of State as its Pope. As time went on, the identity of the marriage of the Imperatorship with the papacy became less clear. Eventually, the emperor became recognized more for his legal authority than his religious one.