Caphirosaurus: Difference between revisions
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{{ | {{Taxobox | ||
| name = ''Caphirosaurus'' | |||
| fossil_range = {{wpl|Late Cretaceous}}, <br/>{{Fossil range|69|66}} | | fossil_range = {{wpl|Late Cretaceous}}, <br/>{{Fossil range|69|66}} | ||
| image = Tyrannosaurus Rex Holotype.jpg | | image = Tyrannosaurus Rex Holotype.jpg | ||
| image_upright = 1.15 | | image_upright = 1.15 | ||
| image_caption = Reconstruction of the ''C. imperator'' {{wpl|Type (biology)|type specimen}} (FT 4520) at the [[Venceia Museum of Natural History]] | | image_caption = Reconstruction of the ''C. imperator'' {{wpl|Type (biology)|type specimen}} (FT 4520) at the [[Venceia Museum of Natural History]] | ||
| | | regnum = {{wp|Animalia}} | ||
| | | phylum = {{wp|Chordata}} | ||
| | | classis = {{wp|Dinosauria}} | ||
| ordo = {{wp|Theropoda}} | |||
| familia = [[Caphirosaurid|Caphirosaurinae]] | |||
| genus = '''''Caphirosaurus''''' | |||
| genus_authority = [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|d'Everard]], 1902 | |||
| type_species = {{extinct}}'''''Caphirosaurus imperator''''' | | type_species = {{extinct}}'''''Caphirosaurus imperator''''' | ||
| type_species_authority = [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|d'Everard]], 1902 | | type_species_authority = [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|d'Everard]], 1902 | ||
| subdivision_ranks = Other | | subdivision_ranks = Other species | ||
| subdivision = *{{extinct}}''C. caesar''<br/><small>[[Jour & Leon]], 1925</small> | | subdivision = *{{extinct}}''C. caesar''<br/><small>[[Jour & Leon]], 1925</small> | ||
*{{extinct}}''C. virilis''<br/><small>Balvini et al, 1973</small> | *{{extinct}}''C. virilis''<br/><small>Balvini et al, 1973</small> | ||
| Line 15: | Line 20: | ||
|title=<small>Genus synonymy</small> | |title=<small>Genus synonymy</small> | ||
|''Imperatorsaurus'' <br /><small>[[Jour & Leon]], 1925</small> | |''Imperatorsaurus'' <br /><small>[[Jour & Leon]], 1925</small> | ||
|'' | |''Urceotadens'' <br /><small>James, 1961</small> | ||
|''Caphirodylus'' <br /><small>Balvini et al, 1973</small> | |''Caphirodylus'' <br /><small>Balvini et al, 1973</small> | ||
|''Terrorsaurus'' <br /><small> | |''Terrorsaurus'' <br /><small>Cape, 1992</small> | ||
}} | }} | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''''Caphirosaurus''''' is a genus of caphirosaurid theropod dinosaur. The species '''''Caphirosaurus imperator''''' (''imperator'' meaning "emperor" in Latin), sometimes colloquially called '''''Imperatorsaurus''''', is one of the best represented of the large theropods. ''Caphirosaurus'' lived throughout what was then a supercontinent known as [[Sarpolevantia]], with fossils found particularly in [[Caphiria]] and southern [[Urcea]]. ''Caphirosaurus'' had a much wider range than other theropods. Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the Upper Cretaceous period, 69 to 66 million years ago. It was the last known member of the caphirosaurids and among the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist before the {{wpl|Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event}}. | |||
'''''Caphirosaurus''''' is a genus of caphirosaurid theropod dinosaur. The species '''''Caphirosaurus imperator''''' (''imperator'' meaning "emperor" in Latin), sometimes colloquially called '''''Imperatorsaurus''''', is one of the best represented of the large theropods. ''Caphirosaurus'' lived throughout what | |||
Like other caphirosaurids, ''Caphirosaurus'' was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy tail. Relative to its large and powerful hind limbs, the forelimbs of ''Caphirosaurus'' were short but unusually powerful for their size, and they had two clawed digits. The most complete specimen measures up to 14.1 meters (47 feet) in length, though ''C. imperator'' could grow to lengths of over 15.2 m (50 ft), up to 4.25 m (14 ft) tall at the hips, and according to most modern estimates 8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons) to 14 metric tons (15.4 short tons) in weight. Although a few other theropods rivaled or exceeded ''Caphirosaurus imperator'' in size, it is still among the largest known land predators and is estimated to have exerted the strongest bite force among all terrestrial animals. By far the largest carnivore in its environment, ''Caphirosaurus imperator'' was most likely an apex predator, preying upon hadrosaurs, juvenile armored herbivores like ''[[Tassellasaurus]]'' and ''[[Testudosaurus]]'', and possibly sauropods. Some experts have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger. The question of whether ''Caphirosaurus'' was an apex predator or a pure scavenger was among the longest debates in paleontology. Most paleontologists today accept that ''Caphirosaurus'' was both an active predator and a scavenger. | Like other caphirosaurids, ''Caphirosaurus'' was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy tail. Relative to its large and powerful hind limbs, the forelimbs of ''Caphirosaurus'' were short but unusually powerful for their size, and they had two clawed digits. The most complete specimen measures up to 14.1 meters (47 feet) in length, though ''C. imperator'' could grow to lengths of over 15.2 m (50 ft), up to 4.25 m (14 ft) tall at the hips, and according to most modern estimates 8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons) to 14 metric tons (15.4 short tons) in weight. Although a few other theropods rivaled or exceeded ''Caphirosaurus imperator'' in size, it is still among the largest known land predators and is estimated to have exerted the strongest bite force among all terrestrial animals. By far the largest carnivore in its environment, ''Caphirosaurus imperator'' was most likely an apex predator, preying upon hadrosaurs, juvenile armored herbivores like ''[[Tassellasaurus]]'' and ''[[Testudosaurus]]'', and possibly sauropods. Some experts have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger. The question of whether ''Caphirosaurus'' was an apex predator or a pure scavenger was among the longest debates in paleontology. Most paleontologists today accept that ''Caphirosaurus'' was both an active predator and a scavenger. | ||
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[[File:Dynamosaurus_holotype.jpg|thumb|Lower jaw of ''C. imperator'' excavated by [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|d'Everard]]'s expedition in 1902]] | [[File:Dynamosaurus_holotype.jpg|thumb|Lower jaw of ''C. imperator'' excavated by [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|d'Everard]]'s expedition in 1902]] | ||
[[File:SUE-T-REX-FMNH-PR-2081-By-JJxFile.jpg|thumb|Cleo (FJ 8823) displayed in [[Collinebourg Natural History Museum]]]] | [[File:SUE-T-REX-FMNH-PR-2081-By-JJxFile.jpg|thumb|Cleo (FJ 8823) displayed in [[Collinebourg Natural History Museum]]]] | ||
Teeth from what is now documented as a ''Caphirosaurus imperator'' were found in 1874 by [[Thibault d'Avignon]] near [[Serracene]], [[Meceria]]. In the early 1890s, Krinkos collected postcranial elements in eastern [[Belactrum]]. [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|Phillipe d'Everard]] found the first partial skeleton of ''C. imperator'' in eastern | Teeth from what is now documented as a ''Caphirosaurus imperator'' were found in 1874 by [[Thibault d'Avignon]] near [[Serracene]], [[Meceria]]. In the early 1890s, Krinkos collected postcranial elements in eastern [[Belactrum]]. [[Phillipe d'Everard (paleontologist)|Phillipe d'Everard]] found the first partial skeleton of ''C. imperator'' in eastern Belactrum in 1900. d'Everard found another partial skeleton in [[Serracene]] in 1902, comprising approximately 36 fossilized bones. Writing at the time d'Everard said "Quarry No. 1 contains the lower jaw, femur, pubes, humerus, three vertebrae and two undetermined bones of a large Carnivorous Dinosaur not described by d'Avignon... I have never seen anything like it from the Cretaceous". The generic name is derived from the name of the country in which it was discovered, [[Caphiria]], and the Istroyan word ''σαῦρος'' (''sauros'', meaning "lizard"). d'Everard used the Latin word ''imperator'', meaning "emperor", for the specific name. The full binomial therefore translates to "Caphirian lizard emperor" or "Emperor Lizard of Caphiria", emphasizing the animal's size and perceived dominance over other species of the time. | ||
An expedition to [[Cesindes]] by paleontologist duo [[Jour & Leon]] in 1925 uncovered another partial skeleton, about 25% complete. Initially described as a new genus with the name ''Imperatorsaurus'', it was soon recognized as a subspecies of ''Caphirosaurus'' and given the name ''C. caesar''. The [[Second Great War]] prevented any further paleontological expeditions to be mounted in Caphiria. | An expedition to [[Cesindes]] by paleontologist duo [[Jour & Leon]] in 1925 uncovered another partial skeleton, about 25% complete. Initially described as a new genus with the name ''Imperatorsaurus'', it was soon recognized as a subspecies of ''Caphirosaurus'' and given the name ''C. caesar''. The [[Second Great War]] prevented any further paleontological expeditions to be mounted in Caphiria. | ||
===Post-Great War=== | ===Post-Great War=== | ||
Beginning in the late 1950s there was renewed interest in ''Caphirosaurus'', resulting in the recovery of 42 skeletons (5–80% complete by bone count) from [[Caphiria]]. In 1961, [[Urcea|Urcean]] paleontologist Dr. William James located and recovered the partial skeleton named "JAB 007" in southern [[Urcea]]. JAB 007 is 15% complete by bone count including a complete skull. It was initially described as a new species with the scientific name '' | Beginning in the late 1950s there was renewed interest in ''Caphirosaurus'', resulting in the recovery of 42 skeletons (5–80% complete by bone count) from [[Caphiria]]. In 1961, [[Urcea|Urcean]] paleontologist Dr. William James located and recovered the partial skeleton named "JAB 007" in southern [[Urcea]]. JAB 007 is 15% complete by bone count including a complete skull. It was initially described as a new species with the scientific name ''Urceotadens jamesi'', but was since recognized as a ''C. imperator''. | ||
A new subspecies, ''C. virilis'', was discovered in 1973 by Caphiric amateur paleontologist Balvini. Aided by volunteers and the [[University of Caphiria]], the 90% complete skeleton dubbed Juliette (JBD 2402) was excavated and brought back the [[University of Caphiria]] for study. The species of the skeleton was the topic of dispute for years to come. The specimen was initially described as ''Caphirodylus balvini'', while others, notably [[Yonderre|Yonderian]] sauropod specialist [[C.G. Kier]] thought it to be a juvenile ''C. imperator''. It was widely recognized as a junveile ''C. imperator'' until [[Johann Fürster]], upon close examination and study, in 2001 suggested that it may be a seperate subspecies entirely. Another two ''C. virilis'' have since been excavated, in 2008 and 2015. | A new subspecies, ''C. virilis'', was discovered in 1973 by Caphiric amateur paleontologist Balvini. Aided by volunteers and the [[University of Caphiria]], the 90% complete skeleton dubbed Juliette (JBD 2402) was excavated and brought back the [[University of Caphiria]] for study. The species of the skeleton was the topic of dispute for years to come. The specimen was initially described as ''Caphirodylus balvini'', while others, notably [[Yonderre|Yonderian]] sauropod specialist [[C.G. Kier]] thought it to be a juvenile ''C. imperator''. It was widely recognized as a junveile ''C. imperator'' until [[Johann Fürster]], upon close examination and study, in 2001 suggested that it may be a seperate subspecies entirely. Another two ''C. virilis'' have since been excavated, in 2008 and 2015. | ||
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Over half of the known ''C. imperator'' specimens appear to have died within six years of reaching sexual maturity, a pattern which is also seen in other sauroppods and in some large, long-lived birds and mammals today. These species are characterized by high infant mortality rates, followed by relatively low mortality among juveniles. Mortality increases again following sexual maturity, partly due to the stresses of reproduction. One study suggests that the rarity of juvenile ''C. imperator'' fossils is due in part to low juvenile mortality rates; the animals were not dying in large numbers at these ages, and thus were not often fossilized. This rarity may also be due to the incompleteness of the fossil record or to the bias of fossil collectors towards larger, more spectacular specimens. In a 2013 lecture, [[Johann Fürster]] suggested that dinosaurs "lived fast and died young" because they reproduced quickly whereas mammals have long life spans because they take longer to reproduce. Fürster also suggested that ''Caphirosaurus'' reproduced quickly and died young, but attributes their short life spans to the dangerous lives they lived. | Over half of the known ''C. imperator'' specimens appear to have died within six years of reaching sexual maturity, a pattern which is also seen in other sauroppods and in some large, long-lived birds and mammals today. These species are characterized by high infant mortality rates, followed by relatively low mortality among juveniles. Mortality increases again following sexual maturity, partly due to the stresses of reproduction. One study suggests that the rarity of juvenile ''C. imperator'' fossils is due in part to low juvenile mortality rates; the animals were not dying in large numbers at these ages, and thus were not often fossilized. This rarity may also be due to the incompleteness of the fossil record or to the bias of fossil collectors towards larger, more spectacular specimens. In a 2013 lecture, [[Johann Fürster]] suggested that dinosaurs "lived fast and died young" because they reproduced quickly whereas mammals have long life spans because they take longer to reproduce. Fürster also suggested that ''Caphirosaurus'' reproduced quickly and died young, but attributes their short life spans to the dangerous lives they lived. | ||
A study conducted by the [[University of Collinebourg]] found that ''Caphirosaurus'' had heightened sensory abilities, highlighting relatively rapid and coordinated eye and head movements; an enhanced ability to sense low frequency sounds, which would allow '' Caphirosaurus'' to track prey movements from long distances; and an enhanced sense of smell. A study published by Pierre concluded that ''Caphirosaurus'' had keen vision. By applying modified perimetry to facial reconstructions of several dinosaurs including ''Caphirosaurus'', the study found that ''Caphirosaurus'' had a binocular range of 55 degrees, surpassing that of modern hawks. Pierre estimated that ''Caphirosaurus'' had 13 times the visual acuity of a human and surpassed the visual acuity of an eagle, which is 3.6 times that of a person. Stevens estimated a limiting far point (that is, the distance at which an object can be seen as separate from the horizon) as far as 6 km (3.7 mi) away, which is greater than the 1.6 km (1 mi) that a human can see. | A study conducted by researchers at the [[University of Collinebourg]] found that ''Caphirosaurus'' had heightened sensory abilities, highlighting relatively rapid and coordinated eye and head movements; an enhanced ability to sense low frequency sounds, which would allow '' Caphirosaurus'' to track prey movements from long distances; and an enhanced sense of smell. A study published by Pierre concluded that ''Caphirosaurus'' had keen vision. By applying modified perimetry to facial reconstructions of several dinosaurs including ''Caphirosaurus'', the study found that ''Caphirosaurus'' had a binocular range of 55 degrees, surpassing that of modern hawks. Pierre estimated that ''Caphirosaurus'' had 13 times the visual acuity of a human and surpassed the visual acuity of an eagle, which is 3.6 times that of a person. Stevens estimated a limiting far point (that is, the distance at which an object can be seen as separate from the horizon) as far as 6 km (3.7 mi) away, which is greater than the 1.6 km (1 mi) that a human can see. | ||
Most paleontologists accept that ''Caphirosaurus'' was both an active predator and a scavenger like most large carnivores. By far the largest carnivore in its environment, ''C. imperator'' was most likely an apex predator, preying upon hadrosaurs, juvenile armored herbivores like ''[[Tassellasaurus]]'' and ''[[Testudosaurus]]'' | Most paleontologists accept that ''Caphirosaurus'' was both an active predator and a scavenger like most large carnivores. By far the largest carnivore in its environment, ''C. imperator'' was most likely an apex predator, preying upon hadrosaurs, juvenile armored herbivores like ''[[Tassellasaurus]]'' and ''[[Testudosaurus]]'' and sauropods. ''Caphirosaurus'' has often been compared to some [[joanusaurid|joanusaurids]] like ''[[Joanusaurus]]'' and ''[[Vollardisaurus]]'' that were also the largest carnivores around in their respective time periods and are assumed to have had similar status as apex predators. A study in 2012 by Francois de Carre and Edmond Falk found that ''Caphirosaurus'' had the most powerful bite of any terrestrial animal that has ever lived, finding an adult ''Caphirosaurus'' could have exerted 35,000 to 57,000 N (7,868 to 12,814 lbf) of force in the back teeth. Even higher estimates were made by Falk in 2003. This allowed it to crush bones during repetitive biting and fully consume the carcasses of large dinosaurs. Falk and colleagues calculated that ''Caphirosaurus'' was capable of a maximum jaw gape of around 80 degrees, a necessary adaptation for a wide range of jaw angles to power the creature's strong bite. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Paleontology in Yonderre]] | |||
*[[History of paleontology]] | * [[History of paleontology]] | ||
[[Category:Paleontology]] | [[Category:Paleontology]] | ||